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MARXIST CRITICISM, THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL AND WALTER BENJAMIN
(2017) Bulent Alan; Erdinç Durmuş
Marxist literary criticism has been developed on the basis of Marxist political ideas. Even though Marx makes important statements about culture and society in the 1850s Marxist criticism is a phenomenon that came into being in the twentieth century. According to Marx, the ideology, politics, and art which make up the superstructure of a society are all determined by the economic structure of that society. Karl Marx discusses the basic concepts of communism in his work ‚The Communist Manifesto‛ and asserts that societies and their economic systems are constantly in a process of evolution to crea te a classless society. The point in Marxist criticism is that literature cannot be separated or isolated from the ideological and the economic realities of the society in which this li terature is produced. On the other hand, the Frankfurt School, which is practically a neo Marxist one, is a critique of the enlightenment tradition. The radical change and the dif ference of critique between the two schools lie on the intellectual basis. As an Institute for Social Research originally, the Frankfurt School developed a neo-Marxist social the ory. The members of the Frankfurt School borrowed from the theorists of the late- nine teenth century. Its members were basically pluralists. Walter Benjamin is an important member of the Frankfurt School. He was also under the influence of Marxism and showed an inclination to Marxist School, too. Benjamin mixes social criticism and lingu istic analysis with historical nostalgia. The fundamental aesthetic differentiation for him is the one between creation and formation. According to Benjamin, criticism is the pre sentation of truth of a work of art. Criticism tries to culminate, complete and systemati ze what the work of art began
The Id, Ego and Superego in Shakespeare's "A Midsummer Night’s Dream"
(2023) Alkan, Halit
Dealing with human nature, literature is considered to be intertwined with the science of psychology. Psychoanalysis is a method of descending to the unconscious sources of desires, instincts and thoughts and bringing conflicts to the consciousness. Sigmund Freud previously divides the human personality into two systems as unconscious and conscious; however, he then reaches the distinction between ‘id’, ‘ego’ and ‘superego’. While the id works in accordance with instincts, the superego pays regard to morality, but the ego tries to equalize these requests with the reality of the outside world under appropriate conditions. This study aims to analyze the psychological attitudes underlying the behaviors of the characters in William Shakespeare’s "A Midsummer Night’s Dream" through the Freudian concepts of id, ego and superego. Shakespeare changes spaces from society (reality) to nature (dream) in order to arrive at comedy. The Athenians Theseus and Hippolyta are doubled with their fairy counterparts Oberon and Titania, and this doubling offers that the forest in the play is the dreamscape of Athens in which suppressed personalities can emerge. There is reality in daytime and Theseus and Egeus are controlled by the superego in the society. Here, the male-dominant world causes unhappiness to Lysander and Hermia through oppression. There is dream in night-time and the characters are surrounded by the id in the forest. Here, the male-dominant world causes happiness through wish-fulfilment. There is a struggle within all the lovers between the patriarchal superego and the primitive id. The use of psychoanalytic theory in drama is put forward to help readers appreciate this literary text from a different aspect.
A REVIEW OF A POSTMODERN NOVEL THE ROMANTIC EGOIST
(Asr Journal, 2020) Alan, Bülent; Güven, Hazar Faruk
ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study is to examine the French writer Frédéric Beigbeder's Romantic Egoist in the context of postmodern literature. The postmodern concept represents the end of modernization, as can be understood from the prefix "post". There are different interpretations of this concept, first introduced in America, whether it is opposed to modernism or successive of it. Ultimately, while the postmodern concept is being debated, it cannot be considered independently of modernism. Postmodern writers support an understanding that practises on all the legacy of literature, makes references to different works, texts and writers. Irony and pastische are characteristics of this movement. Contrary to modern writers, throughout the work postmodern writers make the reader feel that the story is fictional. In this study, after giving a brief summary of this work, which is an example of a postmodern novel, the answer to the question of who is postmodern writer is sought. The fact that the author sometimes presents himself as a novel character in the work shows that he wrote his work using the metafiction technique of postmodern literature. After examining the examples of this technique in the work, the features like epigraph, collage, quotation and reference of the concept of intertextuality, which is one of the areas used by the postmodern literary movement, are discussed.
A Psychoanalytic Liberal Feminist Analysis of George Moore’s “Esther Waters”
(2023) Alkan, Halit
In the nineteenth-century English society, the public sphere was associated with rationality and man whereas the private sphere was identified with morality and woman. Being deprived of education and professions, women were given the roles of wife and mother. Liberal feminism emphasizes the equality of woman with man in legal and social life. In this sense, the standpoints of Mary Wollstonecraft, Harriet Taylor, and John Stuart Mill for women’s position are expressed. The analysis of the unconscious is important for examining the oppression that women were subjected to in patriarchal society. Thus the views of important psychoanalysts such as Sigmund Freud, Carl G. Jung, and Jacques Lacan are explained. This study examines women’s position in George Moore’s "Esther Waters" in terms of education and marriage with a psychoanalytic liberal feminist approach. Esther has an extramarital sex, has an illegitimate child and financially struggles for her son as a fallen woman. In this study, no matter how Esther tries to draw a libertarian and ‘New Woman’ profile, the patriarchal society in which she lives does not allow her to be liberated and she continues her life by being forced to marry.
The Oppositions in Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story
(2010) Durmuş, Erdinç
An abundance of contradictions characterizes most of Edward Albee’s plays. The playwright emphasizes the crucial function of contrasts in everyday life going beyond just expressing them. The playwright reveals that one has to live with such opposites as black and white, good and bad closely since it is not possible to avoid them. Moreover, one should go one step further and accept this unavoidable situation even embracing this contradictory situation. As an example, that we are spiritually dead, while living, is one of his most important themes. Life and death, in fact, are realities of humanity, close to each other, going hand in hand any moment in life. But this is persistently ignored by his characters as well as by mankind in general. The playwright tries hard to make the reader be aware and acknowledge that this is the case. Therefore, we will try to examine the contradictions in The Zoo Story, give examples, and reveal how influential they are in the play as well as in real life. Key Words: Edward Albee, Paradoxes, The Zoo Story
Charlotte Brontë’s "Shirley" A Dialectic Solution: Capitalist and feminist problematic
(LAP LAMBERT Acadmic Publishing, 2022) Alkan, Halit
This book tries to find answers to the questions such as how Charlotte Brontë evaluated capitalism and feminism in her novel, "Shirley" (1849), whether she dealt with them in accordance to the characteristics of the 19th century Victorian Era or not, on which parameters she criticized capitalism and why she turned to feminism. As for the method the novel, Shirley is resolved on the basis of Marx’s dialectic approach consisting of thesis, antithesis and synthesis.
A Structuralist Analysis of Women’s Position in George Eliot’s "Middlemarch"
(IVPE, 2019) Alkan, Halit
Structuralism that began to be active in the 1950’s is the approach to define the relationship between the part and the whole. This study aims to analyse George Eliot’s "Middlemarch" (1872) in terms of the structuralist approach. This novel is analysed synchronically. In the surface structure of the novel, there is a plot based on the relationships between Dorothea Brooke, Edward Casaubon, Rosamond Vincy and Tertius Lydgate. In terms of syntagmatic relation, while Dorothea marries Casaubon, Rosamond marries Lydgate. Both Dorothea and Rosamond marry their spouses to actualize only their dream goals. In terms of paradigmatic relation, there is also homology of relationships between the two couples because there is an unhappy marriage between Dorothea and Casaubon as well as an unhappy marriage between Rosamond and Lydgate. In terms of syntagmatic relation, Dorothea’s husband dies; Rosamond’s husband dies; Dorothea makes a second marriage; Rosamond makes a second marriage. The novel ends but its melody continues because Dorothea and Rosamond are given no role other than being a wife and mother in the male-dominant society. Education, debt and unhappiness in the surface structure of the novel are closed signs. These signs become explicit signs in the deep structure of the novel in the following sense: While the signifier is education, the signified is enlightenment and self-knowledge; while the signifier is debt, the signified is failure and poverty; while the signifier is unhappiness, the signified is illusion and empathy. As for the deep structure of the novel, its harmony operates on binary opposition between Dorothea and Rosamond as follows: ignorance/knowledge, poverty/wealth, imaginary/reality, selfish/unselfish, love/money. The deep meaning obtained from the deep structure is as follows: There is no innate difference between men and women in terms of mental capacity, but there are prejudices imposed by the male-dominated society on women. This is because the patriarchal society does not allow women to have the same educational opportunities as men. Women who are not allowed an adequate education are left with no choice but to marry and have only the role of a wife and mother in society.
The New Woman through Structuralism in Sarah Grand’s "The Heavenly Twins"
(2022) Alkan, Halit
Structuralism is an approach that seeks to decode the encoded whole consisting of a system to explore a textual work’s deep structure from the surface structure. This study tries to analyse the ‘New Woman’ in Sarah Grand’s “The Heavenly Twins” (1893) according to the structuralist approach. This novel is analysed synchronically. In terms of syntagmatic relation while Evadne Frayling marries George Colquhoun, Angelica Hamilton-Wells marries Mr. Kilroy. As for paradigmatic relation, homology of relationship is seen between two couples since there are unhappy marriages not only between Evadne and Colquhoun, but also between Angelica and Mr. Kilroy. In terms of syntagmatic relation while Angelica surrenders herself sexually to her husband after the death of her friend Tenor, Evadne surrenders herself sexually to her second husband after the death of her first husband Colquhoun. Syphilis and disguise in the novel’s surface structure are closed signs. However, in the deep structure these signs turn to be explicit signs as follows: When the signifier is syphilis, the signified is reprobate and death; when the signifier is disguise, the signified is freedom. In terms of the novel’s deep structure, the harmony performs on binary oppositions between Evadne and Angelica as follows: ignorant/educated, imprisoned/free, ill/healthy. Although the novel is over, the melody goes on since Evadne and Angelica can get only the role of a wife and a mother in patriarchal society. As for the novel’s deep meaning, women and men have no innate difference for mental capacity, but women face prejudices by patriarchal society because the male-dominant society does not provide women to take the same education as men.
Bildungsroman Tradition in English Literature
(Livre de Lyon, 2023) Alkan, Halit
This book tries to reveal the unique characteristics of the English bildungsroman and to examine the change of the English bildungsroman tradition in three centuries by analysing these characteristics in Daniel Defoe’s "Moll Flanders" of the eighteenth century, George Eliot’s "The Mill on the Floss" of the nineteenth century, and James Joyce’s "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man" of the twentieth century.
A Structuralist Analysis of Anton Chekhov’s "The Lady with the Dog"
(ISPEC Publishing House, 2019) Alkan, Halit
Structuralism that began to be active in the 1950’s is the approach to define the relationship between the part and the whole. This study aims to analyse Anton Chekhov’s "The Lady with the Dog" (1899) in terms of the structuralist approach. This short story is analysed synchronically. In the surface structure, there is a tale based on a love affair between Dmitri Dmitritch Gurov and Anna Sergeyevna who are married to other people. In terms of syntagmatic relation, Gurov marries his wife while he is a student in his second year, and Anna Sergeyevna marries her husband while she is at the age of 20. In terms of paradigmatic relation, there is also homology of relationship between the two couples because Gurov and Anna Sergeyevna both have unhappy marriages. As for the surface structure, in Section I and Section II, the setting is Yalta and the season is summer which represents warmth, freedom, pleasure, optimism while in Section III and Section IV, the setting is Moscow and the season is winter which represents coldness, oppression, pain, pessimism. As for the surface meaning, love is both pleasure and pain. Arranged marriage and love in the surface structure are closed signs. These signs become explicit signs in the deep structure in the following sense: While the signifier is marriage, the signified isdisappointment; while the signifier is love, the signified is power. As for the deep structure, itsharmony operates on binary opposition between ‘being as a subject’ and ‘being as an object’. In Section I and Section II, Gurov and Anna Sergeyevna are ‘beings as an object’ and not free because they take the judgment of others into consideration. In Section III and Section IV, Gurov and Anna Sergeyevna who fall in love with each other become ‘beings as a subject’ and free because they ignore how others judge them, make their choice, take action and take the responsibility of their decision. Its melody operates on the fixed cycle of getting married on social traditions. The short story ends but its melody continues because Gurov and Anna Sergeyevna will continue to love and meet each other in secret due to their marriage to other people. As for the deep meaning, hell is much of provincial values and unquestioning acceptance of conforming to meaningless social traditions.
THE PARODY OF UNCAUGHT FISH: A POSTMODERN TAKE ON TROUT FISHING IN AMERICA
(II. INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM ON ANGLO-AMERICAN CULTURE AND LITERATURE, 2023) Toson ,Mehmet Faruk, Alan, Bülent
Richard Brautigan's novels, including Trout Fishing in America, challenge conventional writing styles and parodies realistic writing norms. His attitude towards fiction is reactive, denaturalizing established forms of writing by creating stories that reveal how we organize human experience and come to terms with it. Richard Brautigan's work Trout Fishing in America, which questions traditional writing conventions and parodies realistic conventions, is a prime example of the author's avant-garde approach to literature. The phrase "Trout Fishing in America" is used in a variety of ways throughout the story to symbolize various individuals, places, and other elements. The book defies classification because of its episodic style, absence of a main plot, and uneven character development. Brautigan uses the story of a narrator searching for perfect spots to go trout fishing as a metaphor to show how materialism and moral decay have destroyed once-beautiful, innocent America. This study aims to analyse how Brautigan uses parody, a postmodern tool, to deconstruct, denaturalize and demythologize the fixed grand narrative of his time in this work.
A Liberal Feminist Approach to Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s "The Yellow Wallpaper"
(2021) Alkan, Halit
Patriarchal society gives legal rights and economic power to men only so that women are subject to men and imprisoned in private sphere. When women who are given only the role of a wife and mother begin to demand freedom and legal rights, the basis of feminism appears. This study applies liberal feminist approach to Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s "The Yellow Wallpaper" (1892) in order to analyse the gender roles in terms of patriarchal ideology of separate spheres. After giving birth to a baby, the narrator is diagnosed with hysteria by her husband John who is a physician. She is also prescribed a ‘rest cure’ for three months in the attic of an isolated house. The ‘rest cure’ causes her obsession with the yellow wallpaper and slowly drives her mad due to the limitation of thinking and of raising the consciousness of female in private sphere. To be imprisoned in a room may have enormous risks of disappointment, madness, and suicide. In order to limit a woman’s participation in the intellectual and public sphere, masculine science of nineteenth century’s patriarchal society converts ‘an angel in the house’ into ‘the madwoman in the attic’ under the name of ‘rest cure’. Gilman suggests that a woman can only free herself if her financial conditions are radically changed through finally installing a dialectical movement between private sphere and public sphere.
Personification and Didactic Approach: "The Romance of the Rose"
(2021) Alkan, Halit
Love for God is the first love, but in reality first love is sensual love, and in this way Nature tries to maintain the continuation of the species. The theme of love, the main doctrine of Christianity, has an important place in medieval poems. This study examines "The Romance of the Rose" in terms of the personification tradition and didactic approach. The aforementioned work is the most original and lyrical work of European courtly literature written by two separate poets mentioned below in 1230 and 1280. In order to explain the art of love, Guillaume de Lorris portrays in an imaginary narrative the eternal love of the hero who tries to reunite his lover embodied in a rare rose in the middle of a rose garden. Jean de Meun adds a continuation section and an ending to the poem with the addendum of 17723 lines. In the aforementioned work, while de Lorris gives the person in love the stages of seeing, speaking, touching and kissing, and the work ends with the complaints of the lover, de Meun gives the last stage of sensual intercourse. It is completely unique to Medieval Age in terms of its external form, and the personification of feelings and love situations has been taken to the extreme. Without these personifications, the mind would not be able to understand the movements of the soul, and they are used as a scientific psychology terminology. In this work, love remains, in theory, courtiers and nobles. Courtly love is deceptive because the woman has power and control while the man is obedient. However, once the rose has been acquired, the game will be over. What gives this work its soul is the brutal underestimation of women’s weakness in de Meun, and its origin lies in this transcendental character of being sensual.
ESCAPING AND WITHSTANDING THE REALITY THROUGH ART IN EMILY ST. JOHN MANDEL’S STATION ELEVEN
(2020) Alan, Bülent; Maviş, Yunus
Having been an ever-present part of Western culture, end of time speculations, namely apocalypse scenarios, are largely originated in biblical ending scenarios and have always appealed to and intrigued the scholars in a wide range of fields, including the literati. These apocalypse and post-apocalypse scenarios have found a dominating place in literature as part of ecocriticism, which in general terms, puts nature and the themes focusing on ecology in the focal point. Covering dystopian, apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic narratives as genres, ecocriticism includes a broad range of literary and artistic studies and critical theories that emphasize nature and environment relevant problems. Emily St. John Mandel’s Station Eleven (2014) is a distinctive example for dystopian and post-apocalyptic narratives describing the beginning of a global epidemic, Georgia Flu, and life twenty years after the catastrophe, because it both tries to explore man’s potential to create and sustain meaning through art, story and sharing in an ambitious and versatile way, and scrutinizes whether the ethical and cultural values still exist in a post-apocalyptic world, and the likely ways people live together, which is of the set of ideas suggested by post-apocalyptic literature. In this study, we argue that in Station Eleven (2014), Emily St. John Mandel considers art as an intrinsic need for humanity and the real survivor even after a probable apocalypse, and becomes a source of endurance against harsh realities of life, functioning like a home that shelters humans to which they escape.
Survival in Jack London's The Call of the Wild and White Fang
(2022) Durmuş, Erdinç
İnsanın açgözlülüğü, doğaya ve doğal kaynaklara yönelik insan merkezli bakış açısı; netice itibariyle doğanın, kıyamete ramak kala insanlığı uyarmasına yol açacak türden, geri dönüşü olmayan sonuçlar doğurmuştur. İnsanın bu katı davranışı, insanoğlunun çevreye olan söz konusu tutumunun devam etmesi durumunda kaçınılmaz bir kıyamet konusunda insanlığı uyaran kayda değer bir edebi ve sanatsal eser yığınına imza atan edebiyatçıların, medyanın ve bazı aktivistlerin iç bilincini uyandırmış görünmektedir. Kendini doğanın sahibi olarak gören insan, bumerang benzeri bir etki yaratan sorumsuz ve patavatsız davranışlarıyla her zaman çevrenin ve türlerin, doğal kaynakların ve nihayetinde kendisinin tahribatına neden olmuştur. İnsanoğlunun açgözlülüğü, her geçen gün artan talebi karşılamak için her türlü mal ve malzemenin seri üretimine yol açmakta ve bunun sonucunda çevreyi kirletmekte, fabrika atıkları sonucunda tarım ürünlerini zehirlemekte ve böylece insanları diğer türlerle ortak bir kaderi, hayatta kalma mücadelesini paylaşmaya sevk etmektedir. Jack London'ın the Call of the Wild (1903), ana karakter Buck'ın hayatta kalmasını kolaylaştıran veya ağırlaştıran çevresel faktörlerin rolünü yansıtır ve Buck'ın evcil bir hayvan iken nasıl da ilkel bir canavara dönüştüğünü tasvir etmektedir. Ancak White Fang'da (1906), London, White Fang adlı vahşi bir köpeğin değişen çevreye uyum sağlama mücadelesini ve hayatta kalmak için evcilleştirilmesi gerektiğini anlatır. Bu çalışma, Jack London'ın the Call of the Wild (1903) ve White Fang (1906) adlı yapıtlarını hayatta kalma mücadelesi bağlamında incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Keywords Survival, Jack London, Naturalism, Call of the Wild
A Structuralist Analysis of Jean-Paul Sartre’s "The Flies"
(Mardin Artuklu Üniversitesi, 2016) Alkan, Halit
Structuralism that began to be active in the 1950’s is the approach to define the relationship between the part and the whole. This article provides the phases of linguistics that form the source of structuralism, theory and applications of structuralism and its terminology. This article mainly deals with a structuralist analysis of Jean-Paul Sartre’s "The Flies". The surface structure of The Flies mirrors Sartre’s conception of the structure of freedom. In order to recognize one’s freedom, one must let go of the past like in Act I, make a choice like in Act II Scene I, act on it like in Act II Scene II, and then take its responsibility like in Act III. The surface meaning of the play is that human must accept the past for what it was, for the real events that they did or didn’t do, what they wished and desired and hated. Only then can they choose how the past will decide their future. Only those people who choose, act on it, and accept its responsibility can be free. Bemoaning one’s existence and leaving it to the control of others removes freedom and responsibility. As for the deep structure of the play, its harmony operates on binary opposition between Orestes and Electra. As Orestes is a ‘being as a subject’ and free, he looks towards his future; however, as Electra is a ‘being as an object’ and not free, she sticks into the past. Its melody operates on the fixed cycle of the story of committing a sin and feeling guilt and remorse. The play ends but its melody continues because Electra will carry the darkness of the Furies with her in the form of guilt and remorse forever though they have physically left her alone. In terms of the deep meaning of the play, Orestes’s mission becomes an effort to show the Argives who are manipulated by external forces that they do not have to act like “guilty people” by showing them that they are already free - that they have always been free because they are human beings. Despite being physically confined, one has the freedom of mind which cannot be taken away to disobey external forces. No one has power over you until you give him or her that power.
THE DOWNFALL OF THE SOUTHERN ARISTOCRACY IN WILLIAM FAULKNER’S THE SOUND AND THE FURY
(2018) TOSON, MEHMET FARUK
The main purpose of this thesis is to analyze the downfall of the Southern aristocracy in the novel, The Sound and the Fury by William Faulkner. The main characters in the novel are descendants of a patriarchal southern family, the Compsons, who were once aristocratic and rich in the South. These people do not live the life of luxury they were living in the past baroquely, however, they confront and witness their own downfall instead. The reasons for the downfall of the southern aristocracy lie mostly in their great dependence on the past. Because aristocrats lost their old values which cement the society and family together, they were not able to cope with the realities that modernity brought. The decline is also deteriorated by the conflicts between The Old South and New South. As a result, the Compson children fail to live in accordance with the Southern moral code. The Sound and the Fury gives a detailed story of decline of the Compson family in the eyes of three Compson children, idiot Benjy, materialistic Jason and neurotic Quentin. Their decadence, disintegration and deterioration show the end of a long-lasting notion, the Southern aristocracy.
A Structuralist Analysis of William Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet”
(2021) Alkan, Halit
Structuralism is an approach that defines the relationship between the part and the whole. This study aims to analyse William Shakespeare’s "Romeo and Juliet" in terms of the structuralist approach. In the surface structure, there is love between Romeo Montague and Juliet Capulet who are the children of hostile families. In terms of syntagmatic relation, Romeo and Juliet fall in love with each other, decide to marry and keep it in secret. In terms of paradigmatic relation, there is homology of relationship between the two hostile families. As for the surface structure, there is a symmetrical arrangement of plot between public scenes and private scenes. As for the surface meaning, there is the thematic conflict between hatred and love. As for the deep structure, its harmony operates on binary opposition between public hatred and private love. Its melody operates on the fixed cycle of public hatred and private love. As for the deep meaning, where there is public hatred, private love is helpless. Love can live forever only when society is in peace.
A Transnational Approach to Salman Rushdie’s "Midnight’s Children"
(2020) Alkan, Halit
Colonialism and post-colonialism have led to the development of transnationalism that is the interconnectivity among people and nation states in terms of the economic and social significance of boundaries. When transnational approach is applied to Salman Rushdie’s "Midnight’s Children" (1981), it allows researchers to analyse transnational impact on race, culture and gender not only in host countries but also in home countries. The traditional cultural heritage of India and British imperialism’s impact on Indian society are told through dual identities of the narrator Saleem Sinai who has double parents. Saleem’s grandfather, Aadam Aziz, a Western-trained physician, scorns his wife Naseem who could not notice the difference between mercurochrome and blood stains. As a traditional Indian wife Naseem’s response to the immoral sexual desires of her husband who has adopted the Western culture is a reaction to British cultural environment in India. Saleem’s mother Amina’s cultural conflict caused by colonialism is emphasized because she has to carry on her traditional culture-specific daily habits in her new house bought from a colonialist without changing the order established by Methwold. Despite gaining their independence, Indians cannot get rid of the impact of British colonialism. In terms of transnationalism, Indians are considered as undeveloped, ignorant and wild by British.
Time in Spenser’s "Amoretti and Epithalamion", and Shakespeare’s "Sonnet"
(2021) Alkan, Halit
The sonnet which is originated in Italy is a highly structured poetic form. It flourishes in the Elizabethan period in order to write love sonnets about a beloved and idealized lady. This study focuses on the theme of time in both Edmund Spenser’s "Amoretti and Epithalamion", and William Shakespeare’s "Sonnets". Spenser’s Amoretti, which covers New Year’s Day celebrations, reflects on Spenser’s past forty-one years of life. In "Epithalamion", Spenser records the hours of the day from pre-dawn to wedding night, including the passage of a year in 365 long lines which also correspond to days in a year. Its content moves from the excitement of youth to the anxieties of the middle age, beginning with high hopes for a happy day and ending with record of the speaker’s legacy for future generations. Spenser tries to prevent the passage of time by freezing it in his verses. Shakespeare’s "Sonnets" begins with the narrator’s begging the fair lord to find a woman who will bear his child so that his beauty can be assured for posterity. The poet complains about the ravages of time and its harmful effects on the beauty of the fair lord, and tries to fight the inevitable by forcing the fair lord to convey his perfection to a child. The poet defines time as a dimension of suffering, and asks the fair lord to leave him. In conclusion, time is described as unmanageable power of unforeseen changes and chances as well as a non-personal ominous determinant.

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