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Administrative Structures in the Upper Ottoman Kurdistan During the 18th Century
(Nubihar Akademi, 2015) Çiftçi, Erdal
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Ahmed Anzavur: Soldier, Governor, and Rebel. a Reevaluation of a Late Ottoman Military Man
(Oriental inst Czech Acad Sci, 2023) Yelbasi, Caner
Following the Russian conquest of the North Caucasus, many Muslims from the region were exiled to the Ottoman Empire from the 1860s onwards. They were settled in different parts of the empire from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Syria and Iraq vilayets. By following this policy, the Ottoman state ensured that many Circassians would become part of the Ottoman army, ruling elites, harems and agricultural workforce. Anzavur Ahmed's family was one of them. Although he did not graduate from military school, he participated in the army during the war in Libya (1911), the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), and the First World War (1914-1918). He was also appointed as the governor of Izmit (1920). Anzavur Ahmet is portrayed as a rebel by Turkish official historiography, but in reality, he was much more than that. He was an Ottoman Governor, and supported by Ottoman administrators such as Damad Ferid and Ali Kemal, who were against the Kuvayi Milliye because they believed that the empire would eventually emerge from the chaotic atmosphere of the post-First World War period and make an agreement with the British. This article argues that although Ahmed Anzavur has been labeled a rebel and a traitor according to the official historiography, it is difficult to use these labels given the circumstances of his time.
Aristotelianism and the disintegration of the late antique theological discourse
(Ashgate Publishing Ltd, 2013) Krausmüller Dirk
One of the most striking characteristics of early Christianity was the willingness despite occasional misgivings to engage with Greek philosophy. From the second century onwards Christian writers borrowed terms and concepts from the different philosophical schools in order to formulate their understanding of the Christian God and his relation to Jesus Christ. Following the groundbreaking work of Origen, this engagement reached new levels of depth and sophistication in the controversies of the fourth century. It was in the course of these controversies that the three Cappadocians, Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nazianzus and Gregory of Nyssa developed a radically new conceptual framework, which distinguished between one divine substance or nature and the three hypostases or persons, Father, Son and Holy Spirit, and which associated the former with a set of common qualities such as ‘incorporeality’ and the latter with specific properties such as ‘begotten’ in the case of the Son. This model is evidently influenced by the contemporary philosophical discourse but it has proved difficult to identify its exact antecedents. In the last 50 years scholars have attempted to make the case for Aristotelian, Neoplatonic or Stoic provenance but none of these hypotheses has found universal acceptance.
At the resurrection we will not recognise one another': Radical devaluation of social relations in the lost model of anastasius' and pseudo-athanasius' questions and answers
(2013) Krausmüller, Dirk
The three centuries between 550 and 850 witnessed a debate about the state of human beings after the resurrection. The author of a now lost collection of Questions and Answers asserted that all resurrected would look like Christ in his thirtieth year and who made the further claim that without distinguishing characteristics it would be impossible for the resurrected to recognise people whom they had known during their earthly lives. This article reconstructs the debate surrounding this theory and identifies the factors that led to its emergence. © 2013 by Byzantion. All rights reserved.
Between Tritheism and Sabellianism: Trinitarian Speculation in John Italos' and Nicetas Stethatos' Confessions of Faith
(Brill Academic Publishers, 2016) Krausmüller, Dirk
This article focuses on two confessions of faith, which were composed in the late eleventh century by the philosopher John Italos and by the monk Nicetas Stethatos. In-depth analysis of selected passages shows that the two men subscribed to a Trinitarian theology that could be considered heretical. They denied the existence of a common divine substance that could safeguard the oneness of God and instead emphasised the closeness of the hypostases to each other, which made it impossible for them to accord to the hypostases the distinguishing function that the Cappadocians had given them. Thus it can be argued that it was their Tritheism that pushed them towards a 'Sabellian' solution. © 2016 Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Biography as allegory
(ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 2013) Krausmüller, Dirk
Through comparison with Dante's Divine Comedy and with Late Antique allegorical interpretations of the Bible this article makes the case that Byzantine hagiographers encoded an allegorical dimension into their texts and that they did so in order to make value judgements that complement explicit evaluations of the behaviour of saints.
Byzantine Monastic Communities: Alternative Families?
(ASHGATE PUBLISHING LTD, 2013) Krausmüller, Dirk; Brubaker, L; Tougher, S
Byzantine monks addressed each other as fathers, sons or brothers, and monastic texts from the Middle Byzantine period are replete with terms and concepts that have the family as their original context. This chapter presents evidence for such spiritual' relationships within Byzantine monasteries and asks whether one can consider them as alternative families. It demonstrates that even after tonsure the relationship between spiritual fathers and their sons remained an important feature of monastic life. In late antiquity the lavra was only one of a range of social settings within which men could pursue a monastic lifestyle. The chapter then explores monastic rules from the late tenth and eleventh centuries, in order to assess whether this status quo underwent changes over time. It argues that the relationship between mentor and disciple reflects a broader culture of social networking, which shares important traits with the nuclear family but cannot be reduced to it.
Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c.680-850: A History
(OXFORD UNIV PRESS, 2012) Krausmüller, Dirk
Although the title refers to the period between 680 and 850 as the ‘Iconoclast era’, the main aim of this book is to demonstrate that previous scholarship has exaggerated the importance of the controversy about religious images. The authors argue, firstly, that Iconoclasm was only one aspect in a much broader process of transformation, and secondly, that Iconoclasm itself was less significant than Iconophile sources would have us believe. The book is clearly intended to be a comprehensive treatment of the period. Owing to the specialisations of the two authors, the focus is on art history and on social, economic and administrative history, whereas literature is barely mentioned.
The Circassians of Turkey: War, Violence and Nationalism from the Ottomans to Ataturk
(I.B. TAURIS, 2019) Yelbaşı, Caner
Turkey's Circassians were exiled to the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the Russian conquest of the Caucasus in 1864, resettling most notably in the Danubian provinces, Thessaly, Syria, Central Anatolia and the southern shores of the Sea of Marmara. As experienced veterans of the wars with Russia, many Circassians were recruited into the paramilitary groups of the late Ottoman Empire and later fought on both sides in the Turkish Civil War. Here, Caner Yelbasi reveals the complex and important role played by the Circassians of north-western Anatolia in the chaotic years after 1918. Because many of the key Circassian actors either sided initially with The Ottoman Government or later broke away from the 'national' movement led by Mustafa Kemal in Ankara, official Turkish historiography frequently labelled them 'traitors to the nation'. This book revises this narrative by revealing the overlapping and sometimes conflicting bonds of kinship and political loyalty that inscribed their presence in heartlands of the empire and the republic. Yelbasi shows that the Circassians played an important role in the establishment of the early republic and how the Turkification policies of the Kemalist regime in the two decades following 1918 disrupted their world. Using a wide variety of primary source material, including Ottoman and Republican archives - as well as memoirs, the press and secondary literature - this book sheds light on a minority who, unlike the Kurds or Armenians, are yet to receive scholarly attention in Turkish Studies. It will thus be a vital resource for scholars in Middle East Studies, Turkish Studies and Ottoman Studies.
Debating the Saints' Cult in the Age of Gregory the Great
(OXFORD UNIV PRESS, 2014) Krausmüller, Dirk
The topic of this book is a debate about the supernatural powers of saints and about the afterlife that took place during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Chapters One and Two are devoted to Books II and IV of Gregory the Great’s Dialogi. In the former of these books Gregory explains how the miracles and prophecies of saints come about, and in the latter he deals with the afterlife and the efficacy of masses for the dead.
The educational experiences of Syrian women in countries of safety/asylum
(Elsevier, 2022) Ibesh, Rasem; Ahmad, Wael; Chikhou, Rachid; Jumah, Razan; Sankar, Hayat; Thurston, Allen
The Syrian crisis has resulted in a large refugee movement of Syrian citizens from inside Syria, to countries of safety/asylum, notably Turkey. It is estimated that there are approximately 1.7 million Syrian women refugees in Turkey. This research uses Freire's framing of oppressors and facilitators in education to looks at how the war has impacted on the education of women their country of safety/asylum. Interviews were conducted with 24 refugee women, and the findings presented to a user focus group of Syrian refugee women. Findings indicate that language and finance are key barriers to women fulfilling their educational potential. Changes in the roles of women in countries of safety/asylum are key opportunities that could be exploited by women. Findings also indicated that non-government organisations must co-design educational provision with refugees in order to ensure that opportunities are maximised.
Emergence of the Anti-Kemalist Movement in the South Marmara: Governor of Izmit Çule Ibrahim Hakkı Bey and the Circassian Congress
(Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 2018) Yelbaşı, Caner
The civil war between the Ankara and Ottoman governments between 1920 and 1921 deepened the split among bureaucrats and the military, the two parties supporting the rival governments. After attaining military power, Ankara expanded its control almost to Istanbul, arresting or coercing those statesman who had previously sided with the Ottoman government. The Governor of İzmit, Çule İbrahim Hakkı Bey, was one of these. His activities over a few short years completely altered Ankara’s policy towards the Circassians of the South Marmara region. His aim was to establish a society based on the self-determination rights espoused under Wilsonian Principles, to enable the Circassians to elevate their national aspirations. This article firstly examines the motivations of the anti-nationalist Circassians, particularly discussing the activities of Çule İbrahim Hakkı Bey. Secondly it demonstrates how the anti-nationalists established an association, sought foreign support and declared their independence from both the nationalist government of Ankara and the Ottoman government of Istanbul.
Exile, resistance and deportation: Circassian opposition to the Kemalists in the South Marmara in 1922–1923
(Middle Eastern Studies, 2018) Yelbaşı, Caner
After the Ankara government’s victory in the Turkish-Greek War of 1919-1922, Ankara turned its attention to the punishment of those domestic groups known to oppose it. The anti-Kemalist Circassians, Çerkes Ethem, Kuşçubaşı Eşref, were of particular concern to Ankara, due to their activities against it. The Ankara government’s alarm over the activities of anti-nationalists was heightened. Therefore, to gain control of the region Ankara employed very harsh policies against its opponents. It took the decision to exile fourteen Circassian villages in the Gönen-Manyas area to central and eastern parts of Turkey to secure the region. By using the British Foreign Office records, The Prime Ministry Ottoman and Republican Archives (BOA,BCA), Turkish Military Archive (ATASE), TİTE, Ankara University, History of Turkish Revolution Institute Archive this article argues that the tense Turkish-Greek War in Western Anatolia (1919-1922) convinced Ankara that it would be nearly impossible for it to control the region, and thus it sought extremely harsh methods to deal with the Circassians. As a result of this overreaction, and the associated collective punishment, many women, children and innocent people in the region became victims.
From ‘brothers in religion’ to ‘bandits’: Chechens in Mardin in the late Ottoman period
(2022) Akman, Ekrem
During the nineteenth century, the Ottoman state experienced considerable difficulties in maintaining complete control of both its governance and its territories. The state therefore focused on modernising its military capabilities, as well as establishing its bureaucracy and state structure as an attempt to shore up these weaknesses. From the time of Selim III (1779–1807), the state sought to focus on improving its military capacity in order to withstand the might of hostile European powers. The Ottoman elites were also aware that the Ottoman state could not survive with the existing structure, and thus considered reform vital to maintaining the empire. In addition to the threat from external military conflicts the Ottoman state was also vulnerable because of the spread of nationalist ideas, coupled with deficits in its economy and an incompetent bureaucracy. The Russian conquest of the North Caucasus during the middle of the nineteenth century also resulted in major problems for the state, in particular the mass movement of refugees to Ottoman lands.
From ‘brothers in religion’ to ‘bandits’: Chechens in Mardin in the late Ottoman period
(Taylor & Francis Online, 2021) Yelbaşı, Caner; Akman, Ekrem
This article analyses the mass migration of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire between the mid-1860s and the 1900s. The Russian expansion to the North Caucasus transformed the entire region surrounding the Black Sea, including its demography, governance and politics. This expansion took place in several phases. The first resulted in a major mass migration by several North Caucasian groups, who abandoned the region in response to the increasing presence of Russian military personnel. During the second stage, the exodus of these groups accelerated because of massacres committed by the Russian military in an attempt to take complete control. Many North Caucasians were exiled to Ottoman lands, arriving en masse, either on foot, or by sailing across the Black Sea. This article argues that the Ottoman state lacked a well-functioning settlement policy regarding the incoming North Caucasians. The Ottomans aimed to accommodate the refugees by deploying the frame of viewing them as ‘brothers in religion‘, but this resulted in a number of issues, in particular due to existing problems concerning the ‘state's Tanzimat‘ order, along with the collection of taxes and conflict with Bedouin tribes in the Mardin region. This article examines this phenomenon by means of a study of the ‘Chechens' journey‘ to the Ottoman Empire, focusing specifically on a subgroup of Chechens, who were settled in the Mardin region. Through the use of a considerable array of archival resources, the article seeks to firstly, trace the route taken by the Chechen group to Mardin and secondly, to clarify their transformation from being considered ‘brothers in religion’ by the Ottomans to regional bandits.
Hiding in plain sight: Heterodox trinitarian speculation in the writings of niketas stethatos
(Sankt-Peterburgskoe Obshchestvo Vizantino-Slavyanskih Issledovanii, 2013) Krausmüller, Dirk
This article makes the case that Niketas Stethatos, and Symeon the New Theologian before him, constructed an alternative Trinity where the divine nature, now called Spirit, becomes the "father" of a "son" and where this "son" in turn becomes the "father" of another "son." This model is set out in exposés of the Imago Trinitatis where the human image, which is defined as a nature, the soul, with two faculties, the mind and its off- spring, the word, serves as a starting-point for a reorganisation of the divine archetype, which when considered in isolation seems to be entirely orthodox.
The İmportance of Hevsel Gardens for the City of Amid/Diyarbekir Through History and the Reflection of this in Documents
(Oksijen Matbaacilik, 2015) Ercan, Gümüş
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John of phoberos, a 12th-century monastic founder, and his saints: Luke of mesembria and symeon of the wondrous mountain
(Societe des Bollandistes, 2016) Krausmüller, Dirk
Le moine Jean, abbé du monastère de Phoberos et auteur d’une règle monastique, tenait deux saints en haute estime, à savoir son prédécesseur Luc de Messembria et le stylite et abbé Syméon le Jeune (VIe s.). Si son rapport avec Luc peut se comprendre aisément, la vénération de Jean pour Syméon est, quant à elle, plus surprenante. Elle s’explique probablement par les activités littéraires des moines de la Sainte-Montagne, près d’Antioche, qui firent tout pour promouvoir leur saint patron.
Justifications for the Spanish Invasion of North Africa (16th Century)
(JOURNAL OF AL-TAMADDUN, 2021) Bilgin, Feridun
The process called Reconquista (Reconquest) in history of Spain succeeded with the occupation of Granada (1492). In order to prevent its lands from becoming "Andalusia" again, the Spanish government established the country's lines of defense outside the country in North Africa. Considering religious, commercial, political and military reasons a limited occupation policy was implemented in North Africa. Places on strategic North African coasts such as Ceuta, Melilla, Oran and Merselkebir were occupied, and military garrisons (Presedios/Plazas) were established here. With the help of these garrisons, the Spain's Mediterranean and Atlantic trade has been secured for decades.
Liturgical innovation in 11th- and 12th-century constantinople: Hours and inter-hours in the evergetis Typikon, its 'daughters' and its 'Grand-Daughters'
(2013) Krausmüller, Dirk
From the middle of the 11th century onwards the adoption of a new liturgical element, the inter-hours, and the communal performance of both hours and inter-hours on all days of the year were promoted as the hallmarks of monastic reform. The abbots of Evergetis monastery resisted this trend, most probably because they wished to leave space for individual expressions of worship. However, the pull of the reform discourse made it difficult to maintain such a position. This can be seen from the later adaptations of the Evergetis Typikon, which modify the text of their model by adding stipulations about communal performance of the hours and in most cases also of the inter-hours. Study of these adaptations further reveals that the Philanthropos Typikon was an adaptation of the Evergetis Typikon and in turn served as the model for the later rules of Kecharitomene and Machairas.

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