Tarih Bölümü

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Ahmed Anzavur: Soldier, Governor, and Rebel. a Reevaluation of a Late Ottoman Military Man
(Oriental Inst Czech Acad Sci, 2023) Yelbasi, Caner
Following the Russian conquest of the North Caucasus, many Muslims from the region were exiled to the Ottoman Empire from the 1860s onwards. They were settled in different parts of the empire from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Syria and Iraq vilayets. By following this policy, the Ottoman state ensured that many Circassians would become part of the Ottoman army, ruling elites, harems and agricultural workforce. Anzavur Ahmed's family was one of them. Although he did not graduate from military school, he participated in the army during the war in Libya (1911), the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), and the First World War (1914-1918). He was also appointed as the governor of Izmit (1920). Anzavur Ahmet is portrayed as a rebel by Turkish official historiography, but in reality, he was much more than that. He was an Ottoman Governor, and supported by Ottoman administrators such as Damad Ferid and Ali Kemal, who were against the Kuvayi Milliye because they believed that the empire would eventually emerge from the chaotic atmosphere of the post-First World War period and make an agreement with the British. This article argues that although Ahmed Anzavur has been labeled a rebel and a traitor according to the official historiography, it is difficult to use these labels given the circumstances of his time.
Alman Oryantalizmi ve İslami Dönem Fars Edebiyatı: Bir Literal Geçişkenlik Örneği Olarak Josef von Hammer-Purgstall (1774–1856)
(2019) Avcı, Remzi
Avrupa‘da İslami dönem Fars dili, kültür ve edebiyatına duyulan ilginin tarihi oldukça eski bir geleneğe dayanmaktadır. Çeviri hareketleri bağlamında düşünüldüğünde İslami dönem Fars edebiyatının Avrupa ile metinsel temasının 17. yüzyılda başladığı söylenebilir. Coğrafya ve kültüre duyulan yakın ilgi seyyahların dil ve edebiyata ilgisini de beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu dönemde birçok Alman seyyah Safevi ülkesine seyahat etmiş ve tarih, kültür, dil ve İslami dönem Fars edebiyat üzerine geniş bilgiler toplayarak bunları Batı’ya aktarmıştır. 1634 yılında Fars edebiyatı klasiklerinden olan Şeyh Sa‘dî-i Şîrâzî’nin Gülistan adlı eseri Fransız oryantalist André du Ryer (1580-1660) tarafından Fransızcaya çevrilmiştir. Friedrich Ochsenbach (1606–1658), söz konusu çeviriyi 1636 yılında Fransızcadan Gulistan, das ist, Königlicher Rosengarten/Gülistan, Kraliyet Gül Bahçesi başlığı ile Almancaya çevirmiştir. Safevi ülkesinde medreselerde Farsça öğrenerek Sa‘dî’nin eserleri ile tanışmış olan Adam Olearius/Ölschläger (1600–1671), Almanya’ya döndükten sonra Safevi elçisinin yardımıyla Gülistan’ı 1654 yılında Persianische Rosenthal/Fars Güller Vadisi adıyla Almancaya çevirmiştir. 18. yüzyılın sonlarına doğru Avrupa’da Hâfız-ı Şîrâzî ve Şeyh Sa‘dî-i Şîrâzî gibi İslami dönem Fars şairlerinden Batı dillerine yapılan edebi metin çevirilerdeki artış oryantalistlerden şairlere kadar Almanca konuşulan dünyada da etkisini göstermiştir. Bu zaman dilimi Doğu ve Batı arasında ilişkide bir dönüm noktası olarak düşünülebilir. 19. yüzyılın ise ilk yıllarında diplomat, seyyah, tüccar ve oryantalistlerin yaptıkları çeviriler ile başlayan ve gelişen edebî oryantalizm Almanca konuşulan dünyada Doğu’dan Batı’ya bir Fars şiiri çeviri külliyatı bırakmıştır. Söz konusu külliyatın oluşumunda oldukça önemli bir yerde duran Avusturyalı oryantalist Josef von Hammer-Purgstall (1774-1856), Vinzenz Rosenzweig von Schwannau (1791-1865), Valentin von Huszár (1788-1850), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832), Friedrich Rückert (1788-1866) ve August von Platen (1796-1835) gibi aydınlanmacı, klasik ve romantik akımdan ve birçok düşünür şair ve oryantalistin Fars dili ve şiirine ilgi duymalarında önemli bir etki bırakmıştır. Hammer-Purgstall’ın İslami dönem Fars şiiri çevirilerinden literal bir ağ yarattığınıiddia eden bu çalışma, onun çevirilerinin Alman edebi oryantalizminin inşa ve kurumsallaşmasında nasıl bir rol oynadığını incelemektedir
Citation - Scopus: 1
Biography as allegory
(ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 2013) Krausmüller, Dirk
Through comparison with Dante's Divine Comedy and with Late Antique allegorical interpretations of the Bible this article makes the case that Byzantine hagiographers encoded an allegorical dimension into their texts and that they did so in order to make value judgements that complement explicit evaluations of the behaviour of saints.
Citation - WoS: 4
Byzantine Monastic Communities: Alternative Families?
(ASHGATE PUBLISHING LTD, 2013) Krausmüller, Dirk; Brubaker, L; Tougher, S
Byzantine monks addressed each other as fathers, sons or brothers, and monastic texts from the Middle Byzantine period are replete with terms and concepts that have the family as their original context. This chapter presents evidence for such spiritual' relationships within Byzantine monasteries and asks whether one can consider them as alternative families. It demonstrates that even after tonsure the relationship between spiritual fathers and their sons remained an important feature of monastic life. In late antiquity the lavra was only one of a range of social settings within which men could pursue a monastic lifestyle. The chapter then explores monastic rules from the late tenth and eleventh centuries, in order to assess whether this status quo underwent changes over time. It argues that the relationship between mentor and disciple reflects a broader culture of social networking, which shares important traits with the nuclear family but cannot be reduced to it.
Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era, c.680-850: A History
(OXFORD UNIV PRESS, 2012) Krausmüller, Dirk
Although the title refers to the period between 680 and 850 as the ‘Iconoclast era’, the main aim of this book is to demonstrate that previous scholarship has exaggerated the importance of the controversy about religious images. The authors argue, firstly, that Iconoclasm was only one aspect in a much broader process of transformation, and secondly, that Iconoclasm itself was less significant than Iconophile sources would have us believe. The book is clearly intended to be a comprehensive treatment of the period. Owing to the specialisations of the two authors, the focus is on art history and on social, economic and administrative history, whereas literature is barely mentioned.
Debating the Saints' Cult in the Age of Gregory the Great
(OXFORD UNIV PRESS, 2014) Krausmüller, Dirk
The topic of this book is a debate about the supernatural powers of saints and about the afterlife that took place during the late sixth and early seventh centuries. Chapters One and Two are devoted to Books II and IV of Gregory the Great’s Dialogi. In the former of these books Gregory explains how the miracles and prophecies of saints come about, and in the latter he deals with the afterlife and the efficacy of masses for the dead.
Emergence of the Anti-Kemalist Movement in the South Marmara: Governor of Izmit Cule Ibrahim Hakki Bey and the Circassian Congress
(Routledge Journals, Taylor & Francis Ltd, 2020) Yelbasi, Caner
The civil war between the Ankara and Ottoman governments between 1920 and 1921 deepened the split among bureaucrats and the military, the two parties supporting the rival governments. After attaining military power, Ankara expanded its control almost to Istanbul, arresting or coercing those statesman who had previously sided with the Ottoman government. The Governor of Izmit, cule Ibrahim Hakki Bey, was one of these. His activities over a few short years completely altered Ankara's policy towards the Circassians of the South Marmara region. His aim was to establish a society based on the self-determination rights espoused under Wilsonian Principles, to enable the Circassians to elevate their national aspirations. This article firstly examines the motivations of the anti-nationalist Circassians, particularly discussing the activities of cule Ibrahim Hakki Bey. Secondly it demonstrates how the anti-nationalists established an association, sought foreign support and declared their independence from both the nationalist government of Ankara and the Ottoman government of Istanbul.
Citation - WoS: 2
Citation - Scopus: 1
From ‘brothers in religion’ to ‘bandits’: Chechens in Mardin in the late Ottoman period
(Taylor & Francis Online, 2021) Yelbaşı, Caner; Akman, Ekrem
This article analyses the mass migration of Chechens to the Ottoman Empire between the mid-1860s and the 1900s. The Russian expansion to the North Caucasus transformed the entire region surrounding the Black Sea, including its demography, governance and politics. This expansion took place in several phases. The first resulted in a major mass migration by several North Caucasian groups, who abandoned the region in response to the increasing presence of Russian military personnel. During the second stage, the exodus of these groups accelerated because of massacres committed by the Russian military in an attempt to take complete control. Many North Caucasians were exiled to Ottoman lands, arriving en masse, either on foot, or by sailing across the Black Sea. This article argues that the Ottoman state lacked a well-functioning settlement policy regarding the incoming North Caucasians. The Ottomans aimed to accommodate the refugees by deploying the frame of viewing them as ‘brothers in religion‘, but this resulted in a number of issues, in particular due to existing problems concerning the ‘state's Tanzimat‘ order, along with the collection of taxes and conflict with Bedouin tribes in the Mardin region. This article examines this phenomenon by means of a study of the ‘Chechens' journey‘ to the Ottoman Empire, focusing specifically on a subgroup of Chechens, who were settled in the Mardin region. Through the use of a considerable array of archival resources, the article seeks to firstly, trace the route taken by the Chechen group to Mardin and secondly, to clarify their transformation from being considered ‘brothers in religion’ by the Ottomans to regional bandits.
İtaat, İtikat ve Askerlik Üçgeninde Osmanlı’da Devlet-Yezidi İlişkileri
(Hitit İlahiyat Dergisi, 2021) Akman, Ekrem
Yazidis or Ezidis are a Kurdish speaking religion group, living in the Sheyhan and Sinjar region around Mosul as well as rural areas of Diyarbakir, Urfa and Mardin. Yazidism is an ethno-religious faith, which is specific to certain families and in which any person out of this belief is not accepted. There are still unresolved debates about when and by whom Yazidism was founded, its origin, and basic belief figures. Islamic scholars argue that the Yezidism was founded by the community known as Adeviye Sect, maintained by the followers of Adi. b. Musafir,(555/1160) a Sunni sufi, after his death but then deviated from the belief of Islam in time and became an aberrant religion. Some also claim that this belief has survived as a remnant of Iranian religions such as Zarathustra, Mani and Mithraism (Mihrperest). The Ottoman Empire, occupied the surrounding of Mosul and Diyarbekir in 1514, started to have relationships with the Yazidis. Following this date, the state-Yezidi relationships in the Ottoman Empire regarding obedience, belief and military started. When the Yazidis followed the rules specified by the state, they were granted agricultural lands and areas, and they were accepted to be citizens. However, when they did not obey and revolted, they were accused of being disbeliever, not performing prayers and being aberrant, for this reason, they were punished. In this regard, the attitude of the state towards heterodox groups was determined not by religion and belief, but rather by sovereignty and obedience in the classical period of the Ottoman Empire. With the period of Tanzimat, the state-Yazidi relationships, which was centered on obedience, was first transformed into "Ottomanism", in which all citizens were accepted equal based on belief and military, and then Pan Islamism. Yazidi clergymen and leading figures refused to join the military by urging that their religion did not allow this. Faith and belief were at that time essential for the Ottoman Empire-Yazidi relationships, which was previously based on obedience and revolt. A number of projects were performed for communities and groups which were wanted to be included in the Pan-Islamism and prevent them from being targeted by foreign interventions. In this respect, in addition to the activities of heyet-i tefhimiye, firka-i islahiye, irsad committees, religious education, school and mosque construction activities were initiated. The offer of the Yazidis to solve military problems by paying a certain amount of money like Christians and Jews was not accepted by the state. After the second constitutional era, the demands of the Yazidis regarding a treatment such as exemption from military service in return for jizya or paid military service as a separate religion like Christians and Jews began to be discussed among the Ottoman bureaucrats and administrators. They stated that the group declaring themselves as Yezidi and believing in this respect had to be accepted as Yazidi in accordance with religious and sect freedom, the State had to recognize the religion of the Yazidis and their spiritual leaders had to benefit from the laws applicable for the spiritual leaders of non-Muslim groups. In this article, it is sought to answer the belief problems of the Yazidis and the question of whether the factor of obedience or belief were more determinant in Ottoman-Yazidi relationships. In this research it is claimed that in the classical period when the Ottoman Empire was powerful, its attitude towards the peripheral belief groups and communities was determined by obedience, not by religion and belief. After the Tanzimat, when the external pressures were dominant, these groups were tried to be included in the center by correcting their beliefs by means of military services. This article is divided into three parts: In the first part, the founder and naming of the Yazidi belief, which constitute the main problem of their history, will be examined. In this context, this section will discuss their relations with Satan and Yazid figures, which they define with a different physiognomy. The second part will analyse the Ottoman-Yazidi encounter in the classical period. The third part will focus on military service, which became the main problem in the state-Yezidi relations after the Tanzimat era. The contradictions in the beliefs of the Yazidis also an important part of this article. Therefore, the muhimme defters and the other archive documents were also used in this study to understand the Ottoman Empire's approach to Yazidis and the other-similar heretic groups in the classical and the Tanzimat period. This article will fill an important gap by comparing the functioning of the Ottoman state mechanism in the classical and Tanzimat era.
Citation - Scopus: 1
Justifications for the Spanish Invasion of North Africa (16th Century)
(JOURNAL OF AL-TAMADDUN, 2021) Bilgin, Feridun
The process called Reconquista (Reconquest) in history of Spain succeeded with the occupation of Granada (1492). In order to prevent its lands from becoming "Andalusia" again, the Spanish government established the country's lines of defense outside the country in North Africa. Considering religious, commercial, political and military reasons a limited occupation policy was implemented in North Africa. Places on strategic North African coasts such as Ceuta, Melilla, Oran and Merselkebir were occupied, and military garrisons (Presedios/Plazas) were established here. With the help of these garrisons, the Spain's Mediterranean and Atlantic trade has been secured for decades.
Latest Remaining the Muslims (Moorish) in Andalusia Exile From Spain (1609-1614)
(Dinbilimleri Akad Arastirma Merkezi, 2013) Bilgin, Feridun; Bilgin, Feridun; 02.14. Department of History / Tarih Bölümü; 02. Faculty of Letters / Edebiyat Fakültesi; 01. Mardin Artuklu University / Mardin Artuklu Üniversitesi
After the Muslim conquest of Spain (93/711) the movement of Reconquista (reconquer spain) which is started by cristians, had important successes with the occupation of important Muslim cities such as Toledo (478/1085), Cordoba (634/1236) and Seville (646/1248). Because of this movement the Muslims of Andalus who were gradually losing their power lost altogether their military and political hegemony in Spain with the occupation of Granada (898/1492), the capital of the Nasrids. Some time later (905/1499) the church set up the Inquisition and Spanish rule in order that the Muslims (Moriscos) who had in their own fatherland been reduced to pariah status took up the Catholic religion. In the royal orders that were being published everything that had to do with Islam and Muslims was forbidden and the churches continued with their teaching and education activities and the Inquisition courts with their trials and persecutions in order to punish the "apostates". At the end of the processes of persuasion, persecution, deportation and punishment the belief that the Muslims who were forced to pretend were not sufficiently assimilated, that they kept their distance as regards integration into Christian society and that they made common cause with the enemies of Spain (Ottomans, France and North African dynasts) led to an event of mass exile (1018/1609) that can be characterised as the most merciless and immoral process of the seventeenth century. The exile (expulsion) not only dragged Spain into financial, social and economic chaos but also was a tragedy for the about 340.000 Muslims who were drived out by force from their homes and resulted in the loss of life of tens of thousands during the journey and in the areas where they settled.
Citation - Scopus: 1
Osmanlı Diyarbakır’ında Kelekçilerin Örgütlenme Yapısı ve İlişki Ağları
(Türk Tarih Kurumu, 2021) Dinç, Fasih
Keçi veya koyun tulumlarının şişirilmesi ve üzerlerine keresteden platformların eklenmesiyle yapılan kelek, Osmanlı dönemi boyunca Dicle Nehri’nin DiyarbakırMusul arası kısmında hem nakliyat hem de ulaşımda kullanılan yegâne vasıta olmuştur. Diyarbakır ve çevresinde üretilen mal ve eşya, kelek vasıtasıyla Irak pazarlarına, oradan da uluslararası pazarlara taşınmıştır. Şehir ticareti ve ulaşımındaki etkin rolüne dayalı olarak, kelek imâl eden ve onu nehir yolunda kullanan kelekçiler, şehrin iktisadi örgütlenmesinin önemli bileşenlerinden biri hâline gelmiştir. Dicle’nin Musul’a kadar olan kısmının topoğrafyası ve sığ debisinin kelek dışında başka bir vasıtaya imkân tanımaması kelekçiliği, bu bölgeyle sınırlı bir mesleğe dönüştürmüştür. Böylece kelekçilik, Osmanlı Devleti’nin esnaf birliklerinin belli ilkelere bağlı olarak işleyen yapısına Diyarbakır bölgesine münhasır bir meslek olarak dâhil olmuştur. Mesleki anlamda kelekçiliğin örgütsel yapısı ve bu yapıdan kaynaklı ilişkiler ağına dâir çalışma eksikliği, bu konuya yönelmemizi sağlamıştır. Söz konusu eksikliği gidermek amacıyla hazırladığımız bu çalışmada, kelekçilik mesleğine ve loncasına yönelik detaylı bilgiler sunulmaktadır. Çalışmada, Osmanlı Arşivi ve Diyarbakır Şer’iye Sicillerinin 18. yüzyıl ile 19. yüzyılın ilk yarısına ait verilerinden hareketle, Osmanlı Dönemi’nde Diyarbakır ekonomisinin önemli bir iş kolu olan kelekçiliğin örgütlenme biçimi ve işleyiş düzeni incelenmiştir. Bu çerçevede mesleki örgütlenmenin işleyişinde kelekçilerin devlet ve esnaf örgütleriyle kurduğu ilişki ağları tespit edilerek söz konusu ilişkinin yapısı çözümlenmeye çalışılmıştır.
Citation - WoS: 3
SELF-PERCEPTION IN FULCHER OF CHARTRES: HOW THE CRUSADERS SAW THEMSELVES
(UNIV MALAYA, ACAD ISLAMIC STUDIES, 2018) Polat, Ziya
Crusades shaped world history by changing the relations between Muslims and Christians. They targeted the Muslim World in the Mediterranean basin and lasted approximately two hundred years. The ways the Crusaders perceived themselves had a great influence on the start of their expedition to the East. This article examines socio-psychological aspects of the First Crusade through analysis of the narrative of Fulcher of Chartres. It discusses how the self-perception of the Crusaders motivated them at the start of the First Crusade. It seeks to answer the following questions: How did the Crusaders see themselves, with what mind set did they go on this campaign? Why did they go to the East? How did they position themselves in respect to the Muslims?
Citation - WoS: 4
Citation - Scopus: 2
Separation and conflict: Syriac Jacobites and Syriac Catholics in Mardin in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
(MANEY PUBLISHING, 2014) Özcoşar, İbrahim
From the sixteenth century onwards, the Syriac Jacobites living in the Ottoman empire were confronted by the propaganda of Catholic missionaries. As a result of this propaganda, a Syriac Catholic patriarchate was established in the late eighteenth century, and the Syriac community was divided into two. A merciless conflict ensued between Orthodox Syriacs, aligned with the main Church, and the Catholic Syriacs. While this conflict occurred in all places where Syriacs lived, it was most intense in the city of Mardin, the location of the patriarchal centre of Syriac Jacobites. The Jacobites struggled to prevent both the Catholicization of their community, and also the Catholic takeover of their churches, monasteries and cemeteries. At various times and for various reasons, the Ottoman empire and certain European states felt the need to intervene in this conflict. Continuing almost uninterrupted throughout the nineteenth century, this conflict adversely affected the Syriacs, and also precipitated their modernization.
Citation - WoS: 5
Citation - Scopus: 3
Showing one's true colours: Patriarch Methodios on the morally improving effect of sacred images
(ROUTLEDGE JOURNALS, TAYLOR & FRANCIS LTD, 2016) Krausmüller, Dirk
This brief article makes the case that Patriarch Methodios developed a distinctive icon theology. He argued that the saints had infused the colours of their faces with their holy essence and that these colours when separated from the bodies and transferred to images could thus lead to the moral improvement of the onlookers.
With the Whip Into the Dirty Orient: the Depiction of the Orient in Oskar Mann’s Travel Letters
(Istanbul Univ, Fac Letters, 2021) Avci, Remzi
The present article deals with the travel letters of the German orientalist Oskar Mann (1867-1917). With financial support from the Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences, Mann made two expeditions to the Ottoman Empire and Iran between 1901 and 1906 to research the Iranian languages and dialects. Travel letters and travel diaries are texts with relatively subjective value judgments, in which people and cultures are often described using ethnocentric stereotypes, because a real journey represents a cultural encounter and confrontation with the other that offers unique and invaluable information about the new world. The description of a foreign culture cannot be separated from the subjective value judgments of a traveller. This means the foreign world in which the traveller moves is represented by the subject who experiences it. According to Mann, the Orientals are people from a place that has surrendered to the West. He separates the Orient from the Occident with precise and sharp lines and divides them Eurocentrically into two separate categories. During his travels, Mann produced and imparted knowledge about the foreign cultures on the one hand, and on the other hand he spread and reinforced images and prejudices as well as stereotypes that led to the ontological differentiation between Orient and Occident. This essay tries to show that he perceived the Orient with hegemonic thought patterns and that his foreign imagination remained deeply rooted in the classic European orientalist discourse of the 19th century, and as a consequence the Orient was devalued. This study discusses the stereotypes, images and pattern of ideas that he used to represent the population of the foreign country where he travelled.
WRITING THE ORIENT: THE REPRESENTATION OF THE OTTOMAN SOCIETY IN THE TRAVEL OF EDUARD SACHAU (1845-1930)
(ACTA HISTRIAE, 2022) Avcı, Remzi
In the nineteenth century, the writings of European travellers became a textual vehicle by which the West sought to understand the Orient. Based on first-hand but highly subjective data, they contain comparisons between the Orient and the Occident which distinguish the two regions from one another. Thus, they played an important role in shaping the Western perception of the Orient. This article focuses on the German Orientalistphilologist Eduard Sachau (1845-1930), who held a chair at the Friedrich-Wilhelm University in Berlin and also served as the director of the Seminar fur Orientalische Sprachen (Institute of Oriental Languages). Sachau's journey to the East began in 1879 and lasted about six months. His travel notes were published (in 1883), under the title Reise in Syrien und Mesopotamien (Travel in Syria and Mesopotamia). In the nineteenth century, not only the British and French but also the German travellers had an important role in shaping the Western perception of the Orient. Following Edward Said's groundbreaking work Orientalism (1979) this study will argue that Sachau's narratives produce certain stereotypes. It will be made the case through analyses of the forms of expression, perceptions and cultural patterns that Sachau chose in order to construct an orientalist discourse, when he described different ethnicities, religions and sects.

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